The modernisation of todays society - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 23 Words: 6954 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? Energy is fundamental to almost everything we do. The availability of an adequate and reliable supply of energy is critical for economic development and improving the standard of living. The modernisation of todays society was made possible though the employment of technology which was and still is energised by fossil fuels. But we expect energy it to be available whenever we want, affordable and safe. Only when something goes wrong do we realise how much we depend upon extremely complicated energy systems. (Hinrichs and Kleinbach 2002). Throughout the world the real estate sector is accountable for around 30% of global carbon emissions and 40% of global energy consumption (RICS 2005). Being one of the largest sectors in both carbon emissions and energy consumption it was obvious that it should be targeted. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The modernisation of todays society" essay for you Create order In the United Kingdom 28% of all CO2 emissions come from our homes and According to Gavin Killip (researcher in the Lower Carbon Group, Oxford University) the UK has one of the oldest, most inefficient stocks of housing in Europe, with two million homes that are officially unhealthy. It is well documented that dealing with energy inefficiency in the domestic residential sector helps reduce social illness from fuel poverty and poor housing, as well as the environmental issues of climate change and the reduction of green house gases. The world and UK government have realised that we need to change the way we live to help reduce our carbon emissions, to date there have been many changes made and reports conducted, some of which include, Low carbon buildings program, Energy performance certificates, climate change levy, carbon emission reduction target, climate change bill and the energy efficient target. There have been numerous organisations established to help make the general public more aware of the situation; these include the Energy Savings Trust NEED MORE NAMES. The Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD) was introduced through the Kyoto protocol. The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. The Kyoto Protocol has outlined targets to which thirty seven major countries must meet. They must reduce their greenhouse gas emissions. Britain and Northern Ireland are to cut its greenhouse emissions by 12.5% of its 1990 level by 2012 according to the Kyoto project. According to the Department of Energy and Climate Change the UK is on track to almost double the reduction to 23% by 2012. In 2003 the European Union implemented the Energy Performance of Building Directive (2002/91/EC on the Energy Performance of Buildings). Its purpose is to promote the improvement of the energy performance of buildings within the Community. The European Union felt the best way to achieve this was to ask member states to ensure that when a building is built, sold or rented an energy performance certificate is made available to potential purchasers or tenants. Each member state is responsible for ensuring that an EPC is made available; within Northern Ireland the Department of Finance and Personnel (DFPNI) are responsible under the Energy Performance of Buildings (Certificates and Inspections) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2008. For Northern Ireland energy performance certificates where made mandatory in the summer of 2008. They where phased in; 30 June 2008: Sale of existing dwellings. 30 September 2008: Dwellings and non-dwellings on construction. 30 December 2008: Rental of existing buildings; sale of existing non-dwellings. In addition to producing energy performance certificates for the residential sector, regulations where also in place to implement certificates for large public sectors buildings over 1000square meters. These are known as Display energy certificates or DECs. They are measured by the amount of energy the building uses and are updated annually. Energy Performance certificates for the domestic or residential sector last for 10 years. The only exceptions from needing an energy performance certificate are: Places of worship. Temporary buildings in use for less than two years. Low energy demand buildings such as agricultural buildings. Stand alone buildings less than 50m ². Lease Renewals Extensions. Energy Performance Certificates can only be produced by registered domestic energy assessors (DEA). The assessors are accredited by approved accreditation schemes and must register annually with the national registrar. There are a number of different accreditation schemes available to become a certified assessor. There are also two different types of assessor, domestic and non domestic energy assessor (DEA and NDEA). Every EPC produced is recorded on the registrar along with the data gathered from assessing the property. The registrar in Northern Ireland is maintained by a company called Landmark. EPC record ratings for the energy efficiency of a building and the environmental impact of a building. Domestic Energy Assessors are trained to Level 3 which is Domestic level only and gathers Reduced Data Standard Assessment Procedure (RDSAP). An on-construction EPC is a form of SAP assessment and the assessor would record more info like u values of the materials used, orientation of the building, areas of walls and windows etc. He is whats known as an OCDEA (On Construction Domestic Energy Assessor). Homes built since September 2008 require an OCDEA to produce an On-construction EPC (or new build EPC). There are other certificates required for new builds like the design SAP Calculations and the As Built SAP calculations. BRE is a body called the Building Research Establishment who will provide training and qualifications for SAP assessors. They also have their own software for the production of EPCs and SAP calculations. There are many different bodies like BRE ie Stroma, NHER, and Elmhurst. Commercial rating is undertaken by assessors who are Level 4 and 5. Level 4 is for commercia l and public buildings level 5 for production or industrial buildings. Aim of Dissertation: Critically assess and analyse Energy Performance Certificates in the Residential lettings Sector of Belfast. Objectives: Assess the impact of Energy Performance Certificates on the residential lettings sector. Assess the views of current and potential tenants. Assess the views of landlords. Assess the views of Property professionals and Energy Assessors. Methodology: There are distinctive differences between Quantitative and Qualitative research. In order to satisfy the stated aims and objectives the researcher must consider whether the research is to be of a Quantitative or Qualitative nature. (Williman, 2005). Quantitative research is objective in nature. It is defined as an inquiry into a social or human problem, based on testing a hypothesis or a theory composed of variables, measured with numbers, and analysed with statistical procedures in order to determine whether the hypothesis or the theory hold true. (Cresswell, 1994). Qualitative research is subjective in nature. It emphasises meanings, experiences, description and so on, the information gathered in Qualitative research can be classified under two categories of research namely, exploratory and attitudinal. (Naoum, 2006) Creswell aptly summarised the two concepts by suggesting Qualitative research; the intent is to learn participants views about a particular phenomenon. In respect of Quantitative research, the intent is to see how data provided by participants fits an existing theory, thus the intent in Quantitative Research is either to support or to refute an existing theory (Creswell, 2007). Literature Search / Review: Structured Interviews: Data Analysis: Case Study: Dissertation Structure: Correlation between Objectives, methodology and chapters: Chapter Two: Literature Review: Literature reviews help researches limit the scope of their inquiry, and they convey the importance of studying a topic to readers. Creswell (2003). The idea of a literature review is that it will provide background information which will aid in the completion of this dissertation. A literature review will help develop a sound understanding of the research that has already been completed in the relevant field of study. A literature review is based on a sound and extensive knowledge of the chosen subject, this knowledge had to be generated by the studying of journals, reports, websites and newspapers. As the introduction of Energy Performance Certificates happened in June 2008 then the majority of relevant information will be found on the internet as it is such a topical subject at present. There is also government legislation which provides a lot of relevant information. The literature review is a key element of a Quantitative study. The Literature review will assist the researcher in knowing which specific questions to ask, by developing issues and themes for the research and design process. To enable the researcher to carry out a meticulous review of the chosen area of study it vital that they consider all areas of associated literature. The researcher will also consider sources of secondary data. Secondary literature sources are those that cite from primary sources such as textbooks and newspaper articles, Naoum (2006). Kyoto protocol: DIRECTIVE 2002/91/EC OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 16 December 2002 on the energy performance of buildings. Energy in a Changing World strategy. The Lisbon Strategy: Energy Performance of Buildings (Certificates and Inspections) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2008. This literature review will concentrate on the conventions and protocols that lead to the creation of energy performance certificates. Included in this literature review will be a detailed look at an actually EPC and political views from members of parliament and energy / property professionals. Climate Change: Climate change is a change in the distribution of weather over time. It can be a change in the average weather or a change in the distribution of weather events around an average. Anthropogenic factors are human activities that change the environment. One of the major causes of climate change is the amount of greenhouses gases in the atmosphere. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC or FCCC) is an international environmental treaty produced at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development. The UNFCCC main aim is to control the amount of greenhouse gases in the earths atmosphere. The UNFCCC does not set any mandatory limits or guidelines to the amount of greenhouse gases but instead set protocols that would be compulsory and legally binding. The UNFCCC came into force on March 21, 1994 and at the time of writing the UNFCCC had 192 parties. Once the UNFCCC was formed it formed national greenhouse gas inventories. They used these inventories to set the benchmark levels for 1990. The Kyoto protocol uses these benchmarks to measure performance. The UNFCCC classified all members into three distinct groups; Annex I countries. Annex II countries. Developing Countries. Annex I countries have committed to reducing their greenhouse gas (GHG) emission levels to targets that are mostly set below their 1990 levels. The UK must reduce there GHG by 12.5% of the 1990 levels by 2012. Annex II countries are simply a subgroup of Annex I countries and are members of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. The Annex II countries must pay the costs for the developing countries. Developing counties arent required to reduce emissions under the agreement. Kyoto Protocol: This protocol is part of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). All member countries of the UNFCC meet annually to discuss and assess its progress relating to climate change. These meetings are known as Conferences of the Parties (COP). At the third COP, this took place in December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan the UNFCC adopted the Kyoto Protocol. Its aim is to combat global warming by controlling our greenhouse gas emissions which enter and harm our atmosphere. The Kyoto Protocol was established in Kyoto, Japan in 1997. To date 187 countries have signed up to the protocol. The United States of America is the largest non-member. When rejecting the protocol Mr. Bush cited poor scientific facts,protocol emission targets not scientifically based. Bush claimed that America stands to loose 5 million jobs and a further $400 billion in revenue should the treaty be adopted. The Economics of Climate Change 2007: Stern Review: A 700 page report produced my Nicholas Stern and his team of economist at HM treasury for the British government. It discusses the effects of global warming on the world economy. The reports main conclusion is that early and strong action now will far out way the costs involved if no action where taken in relation to climate change. Stern stated that 1% of the global GDP would be enough to counteract the causes of global warming. However in August 2008 a report in the guardian newspaper quoted Stern that this figure should be increased approx 2% of GDP to account for faster than expected climate change. One of the main conclusions of the stern review was: Emissions have been, and continue to be, driven by economic growth; yet stabilisation of greenhouse gas concentration in the atmosphere is feasible and consistent with continued growth. The review has come under some criticism however, the review, ultimately fails to provide a convincing case for spending a large amount of scarce financial resources on reducing greenhouse gas emissions (Eric Neumayer 2007). While other papers argue that human-induced climate change is not real (Byatt et al., 2006 ). Fuel Poverty: Currently, 203,000 families, representing 33% of households in Northern Ireland, live in fuel poverty (NEA, 2004a NEA, Fuel poverty: the health imperative, NIHE/NEA, Belfast (2004).Niamh Shortt, Jorun RugkÃÆ' ¥sa, 2007). Damp is one of the most common health hazards associated with poor housing and is largely a result of poor insulation and inadequately heated homes. In Northern Ireland social housing tenants spend a greater proportion of their income on energy needs than any other social group (Anon, 1997). The U.K. Home Energy Conservation Act (HECA) was established in 1996 to address energy consumption of the national housing stock. Improving the thermal performance of dwelling envelopes in existing social housing is a priority in Northern Ireland as 79% of total domestic energy consumption is due to space-heating (Anon, 1996). SAP RdSAP: Within the UK the recommended method for measuring an buildings energy rating is standard assessment procedure or SAP. This method calculates the amount of energy the building is using per annum. To calculate energy performance certicates assessors use reduced data standard assessment procedure or RdSAP. Political Opinions: Energy performance certificates make good economic sense (Sammy Wilson 2009). The minister felt that making future tenants and home owners aware of the efficiency of the property will save them money on energy bills in the future. He felt that the more energy efficient properties will become increasing desirable and landlords will want to improve the rating of their properties. Department of Finance and Personnel Northern Ireland: The DFPNI are responsible for improving the energy efficiency of building in northern Ireland. They have introduced energy performance certificates and display energy certificates. They are the section of the government who are responsible for the introduction of the EPCs to Northern Ireland, responding to the European Union legislation Energy Performance of Buildings Directive. Once this legislation was introduced the DFP have since been policing the matter. In a letter sent to all estate agents in October 2009 they stated that they would be visiting all agents to assess the number of properties that have an EPC available. They also noted that any property which doesnt have a valid EPC that the landlord could be liable to a 200 fine. Chapter Three Analysis of Public opinion and Professional Interviews: A questionnaire was disturbed to tenants and home owners in the Belfast area. I emailed links to the online questionnaire which was setup through www.esurveypro.com. This website lets you create online surveys; I then emailed tenants and purchasers a link to the survey. I received 140 completed questionnaires. I then conducted analysis of this data using SPSS 17. The questionnaire data was analysed using SPSS 17. Frequency tables and cross tabulations highlight some of the trends in the data, graphs help represent this data in a more aesthetically pleasing manor. From the above table you can see the frequency of the age. The largest age group was the under 30s which accounted for 61.4% of my data. Then the under 20s at 21.4%. I had a limited response from anyone over the age of 30. Energy performance certificates where introduced to the Northern Ireland market in July 2008. Therefore anyone that has bought a property in the last 18months should have seen an EPC before they rented or purchased their property. From the above table 75.2% of people surveyed had bought or rented a property in the last 18months. If you filter the results to show only those respondents who have rented or bought a property in this past 18 months (i.e. Since EPCs where introduced) then only 60 people or 42.8% where actually aware of Energy performance certificates. 32.9% of respondents had bought or rented in last 18 months and where not aware of the term EPC or energy performance certificate. As it is a legal requirement for all properties sold or rented in Northern Ireland to have an EPC you would imagine that more than 42.8% of purchasers and renters would have been familiar with the phrase EPC. When asked how much the respondent knew about EPCs they had to rate their answer as either 1,2,3,4 or 5. 1 = knew nothing about epcs and 5 = new a lot about epcs. From the above table 54 respondents that said they where not aware of EPCs also said they knew nothing, 6 respondents answered 2 to this question. Out of the 80 respondents that said they where aware of the term EPC or energy performance certificate 14 (17.5%) of them knew nothing about it, 26 (32%) new very little about EPCs, 18 (22.5%) somethings about EPCs, 8 (10%) new quite a bit and 17.5% new a lot about energy performance certificates. This would demonstrate that the majority of the people surveyed had very little knowledge of EPCs. This is quiet shocking as 75.2% of people surveyed had bought or rented a property in the last 18months. From the above table the majority of respondents that bought or rented a property in the last 18 months did not know if the property had an EPC. A shocking 52 (49%) respondents didnt no if the property had an EPC. 46 (43.4%) respondents said their property didnt have an EPC, only 8 (7.5%) respondents confirmed that their property did have an EPC. When asked if an Energy performance certificate would help to make a decision on a property 22.0% said it would not, 21.4% said it would help make a decision and 55.7% where not sure. When asked 38.6% of respondents said they would pay more money for a property that was energy efficient. 28.6% said they would not pay more money and 32.9% said they might pay more money for any energy efficient property. This survey has concluded that the majority of the sample purchasers and tenants in the Belfast area are not aware of energy performance certificates. More needs too be done to make people aware of EPCs and what they mean. When the sale of a property takes place most purchasers arnt interested in the EPC rating. In the majority of cases the EPC isnt displayed in the property brochure. EPCs for sales properties are usually just created as the solicitor is reqired to have one before the sale can take place. Therefore the seller or purchaser never become aware of the rating or of the recommendations it contains. The minimum EPC rating from my sample data was 20. The maximum EPC rating was 85 and the mean 59.26. If you compare this to the Northern Ireland average of 50, my data is therefore slightly higher. However this could be as Belfast has a better housing stock than more rural towns and villages where generally EPC ratings would be lower. The Northern Ireland Housing Executive 2006 Housing Conditions Survey report provides details of the SAP ratings for all properties in Northern Ireland. The mean SAP rating for housing in urban areas was 54.45 in 2006 and for rural housing it was 52.35. For the Belfast Metropolitan Area the mean SAP rating in 2006 was 54.96. This demonstrates clearly the difference in location to SAP ratings and therefore energy efficiency rating or EPC rating. The majority of my sample properties are terrace and apartment, the mean SAP rating for these types of properties are 55.45 and 63 consecutively. The average of these two figures would be 59, which is extremely close to the sample mean above (59.26). SAP ratings are produced for all new build properties. Since their introduction in 2008 EPCs have used RdSAP calculations to calculate the EPC rating. This involves special software models which uses known measurements of energy performance for the different aspects of the property which are: Walls. Roof. Floor. Windows. Main heating. Main heating controls. Secondary heating. Hot water. Lighting. If the Energy performance assessors recommendations are followed then the property could achieve a higher rating. This rating is also displayed on the energy performance certificate and is known as potential rating. The table above shows the min, max and mean figures for the sample data. The minimum rating is 33, maximum 87 and mean 68.8. The improvements that the energy assessor recommends in the energy performance certificate are followed then the average each property can improve by 9.75 points. The minimum improvement a property can make is zero; therefore the owner can not do anything further to increase the efficiency of the property. The maximum potential increase is 37 points. This is a large potential increase and could move the property up two grades on the A to G scale. A scatter plot of EPC rating vs Rental Price. There is no correlation between these to entities. Scatter showing the EPC rating vs Number of bedrooms. For each of two, three and four bedroom properties there is a wide range of EPC ratings, ranging from twenties through to eighties for each. As there is only a small sample of properties for one and five bedroom properties it doesnt range as much. Two bedroom properties appear to cluster more around the 70 to 80 EPC rating more so than any other. The majority of two bedroom properties in Belfast would be apartments. These would have been more recently build or refurbished than three and four bedroom terraced properties. Research from the Northern Ireland Housing Executive 2006 Housing Conditions Survey report would also confirm that the older housing stock is less energy efficient; From the graph below it is evident that the newer the construction of the property the more energy efficient it is. The most frequent grade for all properties in the sample was a C grade, the best performing properties where those with two bedrooms as they had most B and C graded properties. Three bedroom properties had the most E grades. However the sample size of 3 bedroom properties was much larger than that of four bedroom properties. From the opposite it is clear that four bedroom properties have a quantity of G rating properties, no other group in my sample have any G rated properties. EPC Rating depending on Heating Type: The following analysis shows the EPC rating for each of the three different heating types found from my sample data. The pie chart below shows the range of heating types. Gas central heating systems account for 56% and oil 43%. It is clear than Gas heating systems generally produce a better energy performance rating than that of oil fired central heating systems. 56.3% of gas fired central heating systems achieved a C rating in their EPC assessment. Whereas 46.3% of oil fired central heating systems achieved an E rating. Gas central heating systems also achieved many more B rated properties than oil. Economy 7 or electric heating systems are very poorly rated. However only 1 of the sample 155 properties did have this type of heating. My sample data did not contain data to show if the properties where double glazed, the year they where build or the type of insulation. All of these characterises effect the EPC rating also. As the Rdsap measures these elements to provide a rating. On an Energy performance inspection the Domestic energy assessor or DEA will assess: Internal and external measurements of the property. Details of heating and hot water systems. Loft insulation measured and the presence (or not) of cavity wall insulation assessed. Details of window glazing. Wall constructions which will also include the thicknesses of wall. Details of internal lighting, if the bulbs are energy efficient or normal. If certain elements of the property are not accessable the assessor can assume certain details. ie. If there is no access to the loft the DEA will assume insulation or not depending on other aspects of the property. Does the EPC rating effect the Property desirability? To assess desirability the sample property data contained the number of viewings each property had. It also contained how many days the property was on the market for. This was basically the day the property was advertised until the day the property was rented. A negative correlation between the number of viewings and the EPC rating of the property. The r squared value is 0.234, the closer this number is to one the better the data fits the model. When the correlation calculations are run in SPSS 17 the table above is produced. A peasrsons correlation of -.484 shows that there is a negative correlation. Therefore as the EPC rating increases the number of property viewings decrease. The EPC rating compared to the number of days a property is advertised on the market. The EPC rating of a property increases the number of days it is on the market will decrease. Therefore negative correlation exists between these two values. The r squared value of the regression line is 0.233, the closer this number is to one the more accurately the data will fit the model. Pearsons correlation is -.483, again proof that the two values are negatively correlated. Two bedroom properties EPC rating vs Days on Market and Number of Viewings. When only the two bedroom properties are analysed the results are similar to all bedroom properties. There is some negative correlations in both graphs. Three Bedroom Properties EPC rating vs Days on Market and Number of Viewings. Again when only three bedroom properties are analysed the results are still very similar. There is slight negative correlation between these values. The negative correlation between the number of viewings and EPC ratings would suggest that the higher EPC rating the less people want to see / view the property. The negative correlation between EPC rating and days on the market would suggest that as the EPC rating increases the less time the property is advertised. Some would believe that the viewings should increases as the more demand for an energy efficient property the more potential tenants would want to view it. However, this is not the case. As a property increases in demand then tenants are much quicker to pay their deposit on the property to secure it, before someone else. Therefore it usually the case that on the most demanded houses there are significantly less viewings than less popular houses. When a tenant pays their deposit on a property the property is removed from the market and no further viewings take place. This would suggest that the higher the properties Energy performance rating the higher the demand for that property. This appears to be the case for all types of property, regardless of number of bedrooms or heating type. Rental Price relating to EPC rating: The study so far has proved that the higher the EPC rating the more demand for the property, as it is rented quicker than properties with lesser energy performance ratings. The following analysis will determine if there is any correlation between rental price and EPC rating. It is well documented that location is the most influential variable in the rental or sale price of any property. Therefore the analysis of the property data will be separated by relevant postcode to help minimise location variations. The price of a property is also determined by the number of bedrooms by which it contains. This will also be take account of. There is definitely a positive correlation between rental price and EPC rating in the two bedroom properties, however the correlation in the three bedroom properties is much less. The R squared value is 0.256 for two bedroom properties and 0.0240 for three bedroom properties which is extremely weak. The previous analysis focuses on the number of bedrooms each property has, however location is also a relevant factor in the rental price. Therefore the further filtered to allow for this. The largest sample areas are BT10, BT12, BT6 and BT9. Therefore I will focus the analysis on these postcode areas. These four postcode areas account for 58% of all the data collected. There is slight positive correlation, however it is weak as both r squared values are 0.202 and 0.298. Which means that only 20% and 29% of the time would having a higher EPC rating result in a better rental price being agreed. However the property data when filtered to BT9 properties with two and three bedrooms only provided a small selection of properties to evaluate. Slight positive correlation, however it is very weak. There are only a very small sample number of properties once the data has been filtered to BT10 properties with three bedrooms. Therefore any correlation drawn from this small population may be incorrect. Chapter Five: Structured Interviews: This chapter highlights the interviews that where carried out in order to assist with further data analysis. The views and opinions of the key players in the energy efficiency field, especially in the residential sector of the Belfast Market. Interview with a Rental Management Agent based in Belfast: When renting a property, do you show the Energy performance certificate to the potential tenant? If so when do you show them and do you feel it is a good selling point? The EPC is usually displayed in the marketing brochure and also on our website. When the tenant looks through the brochure they sometimes comment on the rating but it isnt usually a big issue. What are the most important aspects of a property to a standard tenant? The most important aspect is usually the location, closely followed by number of bedrooms and condition. More often tenants are now desiring gas fired central heating over all other methods. Double glazed windows are usually a must also. Then things like a garden, garage and if the rooms are double or single bedroom. Have you ever been asked by a potential tenant for an EPC for a property that you have marketed? No, I dont really think tenants take much notice of the EPC, they only people I feel are interested is the DFPNI, they have visited the office a few times enquiring to see how many of our properties have epc. They also done a random spot check, we had to tell the dfpni if the property has a valid epc and if so provide them with then epc serial number. Since the introduction of EPCs, what percentage of the properties rented in your firm do you feel have had an EPC? I wouldnt be sure of an exact percentage, however maybe 50% of rented properties have now got EPC. Some landlords are happy not to get an epc done, when we tell the landlord they could get a fine they are happy to risk it. Some dont see the value in getting an EPC as they arent living in the house and it doesnt matter to them how energy efficient it is. Do you feel that tenants take any notice of EPCs, do they use the rating to make a decision on the property? Tenants dont really look at the EPC, at most they look at the small graph which highlights the rating. I have never had a tenant as to see the whole epc report which highlights the things they can do to make the property more energy efficient. Has there ever been an occasion when you have lost a potential rental as the EPC rating has been poor? No, as I said, tenants dont really take much notice of the EPC rating. They are more interested with the location, rental price and number of bedrooms. How responsive do you think landlords have been to EPCs? Not very responsive, we as the agent usually ask them to provide us with a certificate, most landlords say they will get one but never do. We have had some success by providing EPCs for the landlord; we have sourced a couple of domestic energy assessors who provide us with a preferential rate. How often does a property have a valid EPC when a landlord asks you to market it? Unless we are remarketing a property that we rented last year the chances are they probably wont have a valid certificate. Most new landlords are still unaware of what an EPC actually is. If or when you provide a new landlord with an EPC do they use it to help improve the efficiency? I have never seen a landlord follow any of the advice to better the efficiency of the property. At the moment most landlords are trying to save every penny they can, EPC are unfortunately a necessary expense as it has become law to have one, however still to many landlords are happy not to get one. Until the law changes to require the estate agent to have an EPC before marketing then most properties still wont have a certificate. If a landlord is required to replace something in his property then they may look for a more energy efficient boiler or washing machine. I have actually had tenants complain before as the landlord replaced broken bulbs with energy efficient ones which take too long to heat up. Have any of the landlords that you represent as an agent been fined for not having an energy performance certificate. To my knowledge none of them have had a fine yet, the DFPNI have only checked in our office once and it was only a spot check. Some of those properties didnt have an EPC. However these landlords didnt get fined but received a letter highlighting the fact that they where required to get one. Interview with a letting agent in the Belfast area: When renting a property, do you show the Energy performance certificate to the potential tenant? If so when do you show them and do you feel it is a good selling point? No. What are the most important aspects of a property to a standard tenant? Condition, furnishing, bedrooms. Have you ever been asked by a potential tenant for an EPC for a property that you have marketed? No. Since the introduction of EPCs, what percentage of the properties rented in your firm do you feel have had an EPC? We done them so all we made sure. Do you feel that tenants take any notice of EPCs, do they use the rating to make a decision on the property? Not yet probably in few years Id imagine. Has there ever been an occasion when you have lost a potential rental as the EPC rating has been poor? Nope. How responsive do you think landlords have been to EPCs? With us good because we told them had to have it, we can do it etc. How often does a property have a valid EPC when a landlord asks you to market it? Very few. If or when you provide a new landlord with an EPC do they use it to help improve the efficiency? Dont think so. Have any of the landlords that you represent as an agent been fined for not having an energy performance certificate? No. Interview with Domestic Energy Assessor based in Belfast: How long have you been a qualified DEA? Since December 2008. Approximately how many EPC have you completed? pTo date I have probably done close to 600, most of these have been in Belfast and surrounding towns. I have done everything from 1bedroom Bedsits to 6 bedroom mansions on the Malone Road. Have you noticed any trends with EPCs? Not as such, I generally measure the properties and record all the usual data such as insulation, windows, wall construction, boiler type ect. I then input this info into the computer system and it then provides the rating, it also lists all the recommendations. I can edit these recommendations if I feel some of them are not suitable. Where does the majority of your work come from? I work closely with a number of estate agents and solicitors in Belfast. I get most of my instructions from these. I have done a handful of certificates for private individuals who are generally just interested to find out more about their home. Do you feel many home owners take the advice the EPC offers? The certificates that I provide for home owners is usually used to better the efficiency of their property, they would phone me up to ask for advice on certain issues also. When I provide a certificate for a landlord it is usually just to stay on the right side of the law, the letting agent would sometimes put the EPC rating onto the property brochure and internet. Do you feel the introduction of EPCs have helped reduce the co2 emissions from the built environment? Im not really sure; I dont think enough people really take much notice of the epc rating yet. Hopefully in later years it will become more important. I do think generally the whole country is becoming more energy efficient but Im not sure how much of an impact EPCs have had on this. Interview with Landlord Mr Samuel Patterson: How many properties do you own in Belfast? I currently own four properties in the Belfast area. I own two apartments and two four bedroom terrace houses in south Belfast. Are you aware of the term Energy Performance Certificate? Yes, my letting agent provided me with a lot of information about them. They sound like a good idea however Im not sure how much notice a tenant would take of the EPC rating. How many of your properties have an EPC? Currently both my apartments have an EPC, I only purchased these 7 months ago, and therefore the person I purchased the property from had to provide one. I didnt see the EPC before I bought the property; the solicitor took care of it. I know they both are grade C. Why do the other properties not have an EPC? I have owned the other properties for 7 years now, I have had both rented out since 2006 to long term tenants. However, I have just been given notice from one of these properties and therefore I will have to get an EPC done before I advertise this for rent again. My letting agent has advised that an EPC should cost me 65, they are going to provide this for me. Have you followed any of the advice in the EPC report? I havent seen the EPC reports for either of my apartments. I wont be spending any unnecessary money on any of my properties. I usually furnish and decorate to a good standard. I would not have the money available to install insulation, new boilers or anything like that. Findings from Interviews: From the interview with two local Belfast letting agents, a domestic energy assessor and a landlord the response seems to be that: Tenants: Tenants dont use the EPC rating to help make a decision on the property. Tenants base decisions on the rental price, location, condition and number of bedrooms. Agents have never experienced a tenant not taking a property because of a poor EPC rating. Tenants do not look at the EPC report and see what if anything they can do to make their new home more energy efficient. Landlords: Dont want to spend money making their properties more energy efficient due to the current economic climate. Some landlords are happy not to pay for an EPC and risk getting fined by the DFPNI. Estate agents are driving the demand to get an EPC provided for their properties. When a certificate is produced it isnt used by the landlord. Agents: Are persuading landlords to get an EPC, even although the law requires landlords to have a valid energy performance certificate, it is not the agents responsibility. Are displaying the EPC rating on brochures and on the website. Are working closely with domestic energy assessors to provide certificates at the best price possible. Feel that higher rated EPCs may be slightly more popular because they are usually the properties that are more recent, with better use of space and design, they contain more recent and energy efficient boilers and technology. Bibliography: The walls were so damp and cold fuel poverty and ill health in Northern Ireland: Results from a housing intervention Health Place, Volume 13, Issue 1, March 2007, Pages 99-110 Niamh Shortt, Jorun RugkÃÆ' ¥sa. A missed opportunity: The Stern Review on climate change fails to tackle the issue of non-substitutable loss of natural capital Global Environmental Change, Volume 17, Issues 3-4, August-October 2007, Pages 297-301 Eric Neumayer. I. Byatt, I. Castles, I.D. Goklany, D. Henderson, N. Lawson, R. McKitrick, J. Morris, A. Peacock, C. Robinson and R. Skidelsky, The previous termStern Reviewnext term: a dual critiqueà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ economic aspects, World Economics 7 (4) (2006), pp. 199-229.Byatt et al., 2006. Building Energy Analysis (BEA): A methodology to assess building energy labelling. Energy and Buildings, Volume 39, Issue 6, June 2007, Pages 709-716 F.J. Rey, E. Velasco, F. Varela. Hinrichs.R and Kleinbach.M, 2002. ENERGY Its Use and the Environment. 3rd ed. Edition. London: Thomson. Page 1-3. Research Design- Qualitative, Quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. 2nd Edition- John W. Creswell 2003. Walliman, N (2006) Your Research Project, 2nd edition. Cresswell, J.W (1994) Research Design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches, 2nd ed. Naoum, S.G (2007) Dissertation research and writing for research students.

The Importance Of Evidence Based Practice On Patient Care

Evidence Based Practice has contributed to the healing of millions of patients across the world by meeting the needs of patient care through providing extensive research and evidence. The process of Evidence Based Practice (EBP) is made up of professional nurses. The start of this process is based on previous clinical experience based on encounters nurses have had with patients regarding clinical problems. EBP brings better care to the patient by making the patient and their health issue the main focus of what is being researched or studied. The evidence-based practice (EBP) movement is consistent with nursing’s goal of providing research-based care to patients (Fain, 2015). Nurses main goal of EBP is to explain what and why a topic is being researched, how this process is important to the care of the patient and how the evidence collected can be credible to make a difference. In order to make a difference in a patient’s life by using EBP, nurses must first research th e topic that is concerning to the patient. Research is the first step in beginning the process of solving a clinical problem. It is the best evidence used toward the decision making for patient care. Doing different analysis is important to nursing because it helps the nurse determine which method would be better for the patient and also determines the outcome of what is being studied. Research comes in the form of clinical expertise, patient preferences and existing resources (Fain, 2015). One type ofShow MoreRelatedEvidence Based Practice in Nursing1565 Words   |  7 PagesTitle: Evidence Based Practice in Nursing Name Course Tutor April 20th, 2013 Introduction The paper herein provides a critical discussion of evidence based practice (EBP) in nursing. 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Thus, the practices based on research findings are more likely to result in the desired patient outcomes across numerous clinical settings. In addition, the pressure of healthcare

The Well Paid Receptionist Free Essays

The Well Paid Receptionist Values, Attitudes and Work Behaviour from Johns, G. Saks, A. M. We will write a custom essay sample on The Well Paid Receptionist or any similar topic only for you Order Now (2010). Organizational Behaviour. Pearson Education: Toronto. Case Study The Well-Paid Receptionist Harvey Finley did a quick double take when he caught a glimpse of the figure representing Ms. Brannen’s salary on the year-end printout. A hurried call to payroll confirmed it. Yes, his receptionist had been paid $127 614. 21 for her services last year. As he sat in stunned silence, he had the sudden realization that since his firm was doing so well this year, she would earn at least 10 to 15 percent more money during the current fiscal year. This was a shock, indeed. Background Harvey began his career as a service technician for a major manufacturer of copy machines. He received rather extensive technical training, but his duties were limited to performing routine, on-site maintenance and service for customer. After a year’s experience as a service technician, he asked for and received a promotion to sales representative. In this capacity, he established many favourable contacts in the business community of Troupville and the surrounding towns. He began to think seriously about capitalizing on his success by opening his own business. Then, seven years ago, he decided to take the plunge and start his own firm. He was tired of selling for someone else. When he mentioned his plan to his friends, they all expressed serious doubts; Troupville, a city of approximately 35 000 people located in the Deep South, had just begun to recover from a severe recession. The painful memories of the layoffs, bankruptcies, and plummeting real estate values were too recent and vivid to be forgotten. Undeterred by the skeptics, Harvey was optimistic the Troupville’s slow recovery would soon become a boom. Even though his firm would certainly have to be started on a shoestring, Harvey thought his sales experience and technical competence would enable him to survive what was sure to be a difficult beginning. He was nervous but excited when he signed the lease on the first little building. A lifelong dream was either about to be realized or dashed forever. Troupville Business Systems was born. While he has managed to borrow rent, lease, or subcontract for almost everything that was absolutely necessary, he did need one employee immediately. Of course, he hoped the business would expand rapidly and that he would soon have a complete and competent staff. But until he could be sure that some revenue would be generated, he thought he could get by with one person who would be a combination receptionist/secretary and general assistant. The typical salary for such a position in the area was about $30 000 per year; for Harvey, this was a major expense. Nevertheless, he places what he thought was a well-worked ad in the â€Å"Help Wanted† section of the local newspaper. There were five applicants, four of whom just did not seem quite right for the position he envisioned. The fifth applicant, Ms. Cathy Brannen, was absolutely captivating. Ms. Brannen was 27 years old with one child. Her resume showed that she had graduated from a two-year office administration program at a state university. She had worked for only two employers following graduation, one from five years and the most recent for two years. Since returning to her hometown of Troupville two months ago, following her divorce, she had not been able to find suitable employment. From the moment she sat down for the interview, Harvey and Ms. Brannen seemed to be exactly the same wavelength. She was very articulate, obviously quite bright, and most importantly, very enthusiastic about assisting with the start-up of the new venture. She seemed to be exactly the sort of person Harvey had envisioned when he first begun to think seriously about taking the plunge. He resisted the temptation to offer her the job on the spot, but ended the hour-long interview by telling her that he would check her references and contact her again very soon. Telephone calls to her two former employers convinced Harvey that he had actually underestimated Ms. Brannen’s suitability for the position. Each one said without equivocation that she was the best employee he had ever had in any position. Both former employers concluded the conversation by saying they would rehire her in a minute if she were still available. The only bit of disturbing information gleaned from these two calls was the fact that her annual salary had risen to $32 900 in her last job. Although Harvey thought that the cost of living was probably a bit higher in Houston, where she had last worked, he was not sure she would react favourably to the $30 000 offer he was planning to make. However, he was determined that, somehow, Cathy Brannen would be his first employee. Ms. Brannen seemed quite pleased when Harvey telephoned her at home that same evening. She said she would be delighted to meet him at the office the next morning to discuss the position more fully. Cathy Brannen was obviously very enthusiastic about the job as outlined in the morning. She asked all the right questions, responded quickly and articulately to every query posed to her, and seemed ready to accept the position even before the offer was extended. When Harvey finally got around to mentioning the salary, there was a slight change in Cathy’s eager expression. She stiffened. Since Harvey realized that salary might be a problem, he decided to offer Cathy an incentive of sorts in addition to the $30 000 annual salary. He told her that he realized his salary offer was lower than the amount she has earned on her last job. And he told her he understood that a definite disadvantage of working for a new firm was the complete absence of financial security. Although he was extremely reluctant to guarantee a larger salary because of his own uncertainty regarding the future, he offered her a sales override in the amount of two percent of sales. He explained that she would largely determine the success or failure of the firm. She needed to represent the firm in the finest possible manner to potential customers who telephoned and to those who walked in the front door. For this reason, the sales override seemed to be an appropriate addition to her straight salary. It would provide her with incentive to take an active interest in the firm. Cathy accepted the offer immediately. Even though she was expecting a salary offer of $32 500, she hoped the sales override might make up the difference. Who knows,† she thought, â€Å"two percent of sales may amount to big money someday. † It did not, however, seem very likely at the time. Troupville Business Systems began as a very small distributor of copy machines. The original business plan was just to sell copy machines and provide routine, on-site service. More extensive on-site service and repairs requiring that a machine be removed from a customer’s premises were to be provided by a regional distributor located in a major city approximately 100 miles from Troupville. Troupville Business Systems did well from the start. Several important changes were made in the services the firm offered during the first year. Harvey soon found that there was a greater demand for the leasing of copy machines, particularly the large expensive models that he originally planned to sell. He also soon discovered that his customers wanted to be able to contract directly with his firm for all their service needs. Merely guaranteeing that he could get the machines serviced was not sufficient in the eyes of potential customers. In attempting to accommodate the market, he developed a complete service facility and began to offer leasing options on all models. These changes in the business all occurred during the first year. Growth during that year was steady, but not spectacular. While sales continued to grow steadily the second year, it was early in the third year that Harvey made what turned out to be his best decision. He entered the computer business. Harvey had purchased a personal computer soon after Troupville Business Systems was founded. The machine and its capabilities fascinated him, although he knew virtually nothing about computers. He was soon a member of a local users club, was subscribing to all the magazines, and was taking evening computer courses at the local university- in short, he became a computer buff. Harvey recognized the business potential of the rapidly growing personal computer market, but he did not believe that his original business was sufficiently stable to introduce a new product line just yet. During his third year of operations, he decided the time was right to enter the computer business. He added to his product line a number of personal computers popular with a small business in the area. This key decision caused a virtual explosion in the growth of his firm. Several key positions were added, including that of a comptroller. By the fourth year of operations, computers produced by several other manufacturers had been added to Harvey’s product line, and he had developed the capability of providing complete service for all products carried. His computer enterprise was not limited to business customers, because he quickly developed a significant walk-in retail trade. Rapid growth continued unabated. During the first seven years of the company’s existence, Cathy Brannen had proven truly indispensable. Her performance exceeded Harvey’s highest expectations. Although her official position remained that of secretary/receptionist, she took it on herself to learn about each new product or service. During the early years, Harvey often thought that she did a better job than he did whenever a potential customer called in his absence. Even after he acquired a qualified sales staff, Harvey had no concerns when Cathy had to field questions from a potential customer because a regular salesperson was not available. The customer never realized that the professional young lady capably handling all inquiries was â€Å"only† the receptionist. Cathy began performing fewer sales functions because of the increased number of professional salespersons, but her secretarial duties had expanded tremendously. She was still Harvey’s secretary, and she continued to answer virtually every telephone call coming into the business. Since her office was in an open area, she still was the first to greet many visitors. Cathy took a word-processing course at a local business school shortly after joining the firm. As she began working with Harvey’s first personal computer, she, too developed into a computer aficionado and became the best computer operator in the firm. The Current Situation Harvey was shaken by the realization that Cathy Brannen had been paid over $127 000 last year. As he wondered what, if anything, should be done about her earnings, he began to reflect on the previous seven years. Success had come almost overnight. It seemed as though Troupville Business Systems could do nothing wrong. The workforce had grown at a rate of approximately 15 percent per year since the third year of operations. Seventeen people were now employed by the firm. While Harvey’s dad acknowledged that some of this success was due to being in the right place at the right time, he also had reason to be proud of the choices he had made. Time had proven that all his major decisions had been correct. He also could not overestimate Cathy’s contribution to the success of the firm. Yes, certainly, one of the most important days in the life of the firm was the day when Cathy responded to his ad in the newspaper. Success had brought with it the ever-increasing demands on his time. He had never worked so hard, but the rewards were certainly forthcoming. First, there was the new Jaguar, then the new home on Country Club Drive, the vacation home on the coast, the European trips†¦Yes, success was wonderful. During these years Cathy, too, had prospered. Harvey had not thought much about it, but he did remember making a joking comment the first day she drove her new Mercedes to work. He also remembered commenting on her mink coat at the company banquet last December, Cathy had been dazzling. Now that Harvey realized what he was paying Cathy, he was greatly disturbed. She was making almost twice as much money as anyone else in the firm with the exception of himself. The best salesman had earned an amount in the low nineties last year. His top managers were paid salaries ranging from the high sixties to the mid-seventies. The average salary in the area for executive secretaries was no probably between $30 000 and $35 000 per year. A good receptionist could be hired for under $28 000, and yet Cathy had been paid $127 614. 21 last year. The sales override had certainly enabled Cathy o share in the firm’s success. Yes, indeed. As Harvey thought more and more about the situation, he kept returning to the same conclusion. He felt something had to be done about her compensation. It was just too far out of line with other salaries in the firm. Although Harvey was drawing over $200 000 per year in salary and had built an equity in the business of more than $1 million, these facts did not seem relevant as he pondered what to do. It seemed likely that a number of other employees did know about Cathy’s compensation level. Harvey wondered why no one ever mentioned it. Even the comptroller never mentioned Cathy’s compensation. This did seem quite odd to Harvey, as the comptroller, Frank Bain, knew that Harvey did not even attempt to keep up with the financial details. He relied on Frank to bring important matters to his attention. With no idea of how to approach this problem, Harvey decided to begin by making a list of alternatives. He got out a piece of paper and, as he stared at the blank lines, overheard Cathy’s cheerful exchange with a customer in the next room. How to cite The Well Paid Receptionist, Papers

Challenges in Interpersonal Relationship free essay sample

On one hand it is communication but not effective communication. Effective Interpersonal communication requires effective listening, empathetic listening, and being able to get your personal feelings out of the way. According to Kathy Sole, in order for you to be an effective communicator you must first learn how to decode and encode effectively. An encoder is a sender of the message that is transmitted to the other person. The sender must encode the message properly so the receiver can fully explain the message. The receiver of the message must then decode message and hopefully decode it properly so the message would be fully understandable (Sole, 2011). Challenges In Interpersonal Relatgionship Class 101 DEVELOP STRATEGIES FOR ACTIVE, CRITICAL, AND EMPATHETIC LISTENING Empathic listening is a way of listening to another person which involves understanding and much trust. You must be able to understand what the other party is feeling and what they are mentally, physically or emotionally going through. We will write a custom essay sample on Challenges in Interpersonal Relationship or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The material from this class will be taken from articles and guidelines wrote by Richard Salem, EMPATHIC LISTENING. You can download much of his information off the internet. According to Mr. Salem, there are many benefits to empathic listening such as, â€Å"builds trust and respect; enables the disputants to release their emotions; reduces tensions; encourages the surfacing of information, and creates a safe environment that is conducive to collaborative problem solving† ( Salem, 2003). This part of the class is my favorite and much of the information will be personal information gathered from the students in the class including myself. In this part of the class we will continue on learning how to become effective listeners and being empathetic as well as choosing the right terminology to use. WORDS can kill a person’s trust, their ego, self-esteem, love, and ultimately themselves. This part of the class will teach us how to choose our wording whether you are engaging in a conversation with a friend or in a heated argument with your spouse or mate. Challenges In Interpersonal Relationship Class 101 DEFINE EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND ITS ROLE IN EFFECTIVE INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS Emotional intelligence is the ability to identify, assess, and control the emotions of oneself and of others. Once you have mastered how to control your emotions, having disagreements will become somewhat easier to handle. Much of our information will come from Managing With Emotional Intelligence  by B. Porter. Porter stated in his article, â€Å"Developing effective interpersonal relationships is critical to successful organizational management Managers can employ emotional intelligence (EI) to build trust among employees, to effectively handle crises, and to produce an efficient team-oriented work environment EI is defined as being able to recognize and regulate emotions in ours elves and others (Porter, B. , 2010). Porter’s article is directed more on interpersonal relationship in management, but it also can be implemented in our everyday life with our spouse and family. This article has some great ideas and strategies. DESCRIBE STRATEGIES FOR MANAGING INTERPERSONAL CONFLICTS This section of the class we will learn how to manage conflicts in a healthy manner. If conflict is handled poorly, it creates secondary problems that will also go unmanaged and before you know it, you have several conflicts on hand as stated by R. G. Stockwell in his article Effective Communication in Managing Conflict (1997). UNDERSTAND THE IMPACT OF GENDER AND CULTURE ON INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATIONS Challenges In Interpersonal Relationship Class 101 During the segment of the class we will talk about the difference in gender and their behavior. Men and women are totally different in many ways. Once we understand how the other thinks, why they react as they do, and understand their cultural environment which they have lived we will be more at apt to understand our mate more fully. Jace and Kelli you can see we much to offer in this class. I’m very excited in having you join me as we venture out together in Interpersonal Relationships. If you follow the guidelines I guarantee a healthier relationship between the both of you now and in the future when you marry. A healthy relationship is a happy relationship. Once you know how to communicate and listen effectively, become an empathetic partner your relationship will blossom. I’m looking forward with meeting with the both of you. Sincerely, Laura Lyles References Porter, B. , (2010). Managing with emotional intelligence. Library Leadership Management (online), 24, 199-201.

U.S Drones free essay sample

It could potentially help find lost hikers in mountains, It could help follow suspects and SSP on them without them knowing. This although raises a lot of questions from citizens, because it invades there privacy. Americans dont want this, because not only are they being invaded of their privacy but they are feel somewhat threatened. Threatened because these same similar drones are the ones used overseas to attack enemies of the state. These drones do have the ability to help local, state and federal law enforcements, n order to make everything quicker, cheaper, and safer. This could plan could help out in all sorts of domestic problems, whether its anything from a shooting to a natural disaster. It would make mobility quicker, and also be able to pinpoint certain desired locations without a problem. It could help solve crimes, bring down the crime rate and at the same time, save lives because the drones are unmanned and inexpensive that compared to the man flying planes. We will write a custom essay sample on U.S Drones or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The technology is evolving faster than the law, points out the flaw of the drone. The act and use of these drones are held back because of its unethical use.The people believe it will be crossing the line and lead to criminal trespassing, and break privacy laws. The FAA is the group responsible to make licenses, regulation, and conduct the proper order of business with these drones. They have until September 201 5 to have regulation put in place so It can officially start. Civil liberty groups have been protesting to these unjust decisions by the government. These liberty groups can be classified under the political linkage cause they are parties, groups with some political influence that are trying to get there point across to the government, so that something can be done.The structure that supports the political linkage is the fact that Americans do not agree and do not feel its right. So the push for a more justified way of going about with this drone situation, the civil liberty groups, political linkage, have been able to influence some people within Congress, Government. In Congress, Reps. Ted Poe (R-Texas) and Zoe Aloofer (D-San Jose) Introduced privacy legislation Thursday that would require Alice to get a warrant or a court order before operating a drone to collect 1 OFF this and government action. Threw all these actions that are occurring about with the drones, I was able to set up a framework to show the flow of how something can be done in this American Democracy. This article informs people of the situation by describing both sides of pros and cons while advocating for the possible Justification in using drones to help law enforcement agencies do there Job better and more efficiently. It has all the right intentions to do so.

The eNotes Blog Big Brother, Where ArtThou

Big Brother, Where ArtThou Oh yes, there you are, with your party hat on. What with the recent NSA scandal, George Orwells dystopian caution that Big Brother is watching you has never seemed so relevant. In fact, sales of 1984 skyrocketed just after news broke that the US government was tapping into your average Verizon members mundane phone calls. So, how better to celebrate Orwells birthday this week than by a subtle nod to the constant gaze of the Partycomplete with party hats? Such was the idea of the Dutch artist duo Thomas Voort Hekke and Bas van Oerle (known collectively as FRONT 404). Their simple concept was to decorate the ubiquitous security cameras of Utrecht with eye-catching birthday hats. I think its both a great reminder to the public that eyes are on you at basically all times (not saying thats a bad thingjust something to be aware of) and a fun way to honor the late Orwell. What do you think? Big Brother is watching YOU Images courtesy of junk-culture.com. Looking for more Big Brother fun? Check out our 1984 study guide and free chapter and character quizzes.

Organizational Design, Culture, and Adaptation Essay - 2

Organizational Design, Culture, and Adaptation - Essay Example The internal factors that were considered during the restructuring and reengineering were mostly comprised of the attitudes that the employees had on a day to day basis. The external factors were mostly to do with the patients, who were essentially the customers for the sake of the hospital facility. The healthcare manager, therefore, suggested that these two factors formed the very core of knowing where anomalies were coming in and how these needed to be resolved at the earliest and without much hassle. The transformation came about due to the changing attitudes of the employees (the internal factor), which was the reason why the transformation was required in essence. The external factors were given similar importance because the patients are the basis of any hospital’s long term success. If they are contented, then this means that the healthcare facility is doing well but if these are not, and as the healthcare manager suggests, then there is much to learn on the part of al l and sundry. This outlines how well the hospital facility has been able to rein in commitment towards its transformation. The healthcare manager faced quite a few obstacles and barriers in the beginning when the restructuring and re-engineering aspects were outlined in essence. This meant that he needed to face them, analyze them and turn them in his own favor with the passage of time. There were attitudinal problems that the healthcare manager talked about with the internal domains not being beefed up properly.

Explication of a poem Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Explication of a poem - Essay Example This is evident in the line â€Å"I’ve known rivers†. The line that says he â€Å"bathed in the Euphrates when dawns were young† symbolizes that this struggle is as old as the civilization of Euphrates. River is not just the body of waters here but rather symbolic of the long and continuing struggle of the Negroes. Langston Hughes may have spoken about the river in the poem but this poem does not literally talked about the idyllic or the pastoral quietness of the river but rather the deep struggle that they have been. â€Å"The Negro Speaks of Rivers" is actually a political statement of a Negro of his struggle often beset by discrimination and injustice that had gone too long that it already ran deep like the river. The depth of the river or their struggle is not only long in terms of history beginning from the ancient time but also the pain that it can caused them. The setting of the poem was also carefully chosen. Why Euphrates and Congo, the Nile and the pyramids above it suggesting that it is Egypt? Why not California or better yet the South region of America where discrimination and oppression was notorious? It is because these are old civilizations where the Negro came from, indicating that he is capable of greatness as the Nile and the pyramids if only not on the bondage that was imposed on him by the white man. So much so that when the river went down to New Orleans, it became muddy indicating that the Negro was free as the river until it reached New Orleans where he is enslaved. The setting of the poem is more than geography, it is a representation of the objects of Langston Hughes topic that he would like to talk about. The poem is spoken by an old soul who had â€Å"bathed in the Euphrates when dawns were young† and that he knew â€Å"Ancient, dusky rivers†. He is not just a regularly old person but an ancient sage

Illegal Immigration Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Illegal Immigration - Essay Example These people who make the entry are known as immigrant (Immigrant Assist, 2012). An immigrant who enters another country without going through the laid down laws therefore becomes an illegal immigrant. In the United States of American and in all legal jurisdictions around the world, illegal acts are offensive and punishable by law. For this reason, the fact that a person is touted as an ‘illegal’ immigrant alone renders the fellow an offender. Presently, there are very strict laws that prescribe various forms of punishments for people who are caught to be illegal immigrants. As a way of fighting against illegal immigration also, there are a lot of restrictions that have been put on people in the country who are not legal residents. Generally, the debate continues as to what should be done to people who are caught to be illegal immigrants. PROPONENTS Proponents of this debate argue on two major reasons why illegal immigrants should not be punished by the law. First, they argue on humanitarian grounds stating that people would generally travel to the United States of America by crook means because of the need to make greener pastures and alleviate themselves from the hardships they face in their countries. From a humanitarian perspectives therefore, these proponents advocate tempering justice with mercy. There also is an argument by the proponents that illegal immigrants contribute largely to the economy of the United States of America through their trade and other economic activities and thus the need to allow their integration into the United States population. In the light of the growing debate, there have been formal studies and research to confirm the quantitative contribution of illegal immigrants to the economy of the United States. For instance the White House Council of Economic Advisors (2007), reports that â€Å"U.S. natives gain an estimated $37 billion a year from immigrants’ participation in the U.S. economy, according to the Pr esident’s Council of Economic Advisors† (Drum Major Institute, 2012). This figure is by no means a small amount of money to the economic growth of the United States. For each illegal immigrant that is expelled from the country therefore, there is a percentage of this amount that is lost to the United States economy. OPPONENTS There are also those who do not agree that illegal immigration should be entertained. In the view of these opponents, illegal immigrants should continue to be sanctioned and expelled from the United States of America. These opponents argue on two major grounds. The first has to do with the argument of security reasons whiles the second has to do with improper national planning policy. First, it is argued that the continuous stay of people whose information cannot be accounted for constitutes a major security threat to the country. Especially as it is becoming clear that the United States is having more and more international enemies, it is always i mportant that authorities in the country can monitor each and every resident and their activities. However, this is not possible if people enter the country illegally or overstay their visa dates. Again, because the country does not have any formal information on illegal immigrants, it becomes very difficult to include them in national planning

Sodium Alginate and Polymer Drug Delivery Systems

Sodium Alginate and Polymer Drug Delivery Systems Sodium alginate is a hygroscopic material, although, stable at low humidities and at cool temperatures. Aqueous solutions of sodium alginate are most stable at ph 4-10. Below ph3, alginic acid is precipitated. Sodium alginate solutions are susceptible to microbial spoilage during storage, which may effect on solution viscosity. Subsequent loss of viscosity due to depolarization was observed when sodium alginate was heated above 70Â °c. Preparations containing sodium alginate for external use may be preserved by the addition of 0. 1% chlorocresol, chloroxylenol, or parabens and if the medium is acidic, benzoic acid may be used. Bulk material should be stored in an airtight container in a cool and dry place. Sodium alginate is incompatible with acridine derivatives, crystal violet, phenyl mercuric acetate and nitrate, heavy metals and ethanol in concentrations greater than 5%w/v. Low concentrations of electrolytes cause an increase in viscosity but high electrolyte concentrations causing salting out of sodium alginate; salting out occurs if more than 4% of sodium chloride is present. Sodium alginate is used in variety of oral and pharmaceutical formulations. In tablet formulations, sodium alginate may be used as both a binder and disintegrant. It has also been used as a diluents in capsule formulations and also been used in the preparation of sustained release oral formulations, since it can delay the dissolution of a drug from tablets, capsules and aqueous suspensions. Recently, sodium alginate has been used for the aqueous microencapsulation of drugs in contrast with the more conventional microencapsulation techniques which use organic solvent systems. It has also been used in the formation of nanoparticles. The adhesive nature of hydrogels prepared from sodium alginate has been investigated and the drug release from oral mucosal adhesive tablets based in sodium alginate has been reported. Hydrogel systems containing alginates have also been investigated for delivery of proteins and peptides. Therapeutically sodium alginate has been used in the combination with an h2 receptor antagonist in the management of gastroesophageal reflux and as a haemostatic agent in surgical dressings. Alginate dressings, used to treat exuding wounds often contain significant amounts of sodium alginate as this improves the gelling properties. Sodium alginate is also used in cosmetics and food products at concentrations given in table 4 Safety Sodium alginate is widely used in cosmetics, food products, and pharmaceutical formulations, such as topical products, including wound dressings. It is generally regarded as a nontoxic and non-irritant material, although excessive oral consumption may be harmful. The WHO has not specified an acceptable daily intake for alginic acid and alginate salts as the levels used in foods do not represent a hazard to health. Handling precautions. Sodium alginate may be irritant to eye or respiratory system if inhaled as dust;eye protection, gloves, dust respirator are needed while handling. Sodium alginate should be handled in a well ventilated environment. Related substances The various substances related to sodium alginate include alginic acid, potassium alginate, calcium alginate, propylene glycol alginate. CHITOSAN Chitosan is a derivative of chitin and it is a unique polysaccharide and hydrophilic polymer. Non Proprietary Names BP: Chitosan hydrochloride Ph Eur : Chitosan hydrochloridum Chemistry Preparation The principle derivative of chitin, namely Chitosan (C6H11O4N)n is a unique polysaccharide and hydrophilic polymer which is taken from the chitin, a polysaccharide found in exoskeletons of crustaceans. it is processed by removing the shells from shellfish such as shrimp, lobusters and crabs. The shells are then ground into a pulverous powder. This powder is then deacetylated. This involves boiling chitin in concentrated alkali (50%) for several hours. This will yield chitosan with a degree of acetylation between 20-30%, the most popular commercial form of Chitosan. In such a chitosan, the acetyl groups are uniformly distributed along the polymer chain. This is in contrast with the Chitosan of similar degree of acetylation, but isolated from fungal cell walls in which the acetylresidues are grouped into clusters. Special chemical treatments are required to obtain completely de-acetylated forms of chitosan. CHITIN Functional category It is used as a coating agent; disintegrant; film forming agent; mucoadhesive, tablet binder; viscosity increasing agent etc. Chemical character Chitosan is a cationic polyamine with a high charge density at ph The amino group in chitosan has a pka value of approximately 6. 5, thus chitosan is positively charged and soluble in acidic to neutral solution with a charge density depend on ph and the %da. Numerous studies have demonstrated that the salt form, molecular weight, and degree of deacetylation as well as ph at which chitosan is used all influence how this polymer is utilized in pharmaceutical application. Chitosan is incompatible with strong oxidising agent. Typical properties Chitosan is a cationic polyamine with a high charge density at ph Acidity / alkalinity pH=4-6(1%w/v aqueous solution) Density 1. 35-1. 49g/cm3 Particle size distribution Stability and storage conditions Chitosan is a stable material at room temperature although it is hygroscopic after drying. Chitosan should be stored in a tigjtly closed container in a cool and dry place. Incompatibilities Chitosan is incompatible with strong oxidizing agents. Safety Chitosan is being investigated widely for use as an excipient in oral and other pharmaceutical formulations. It is also used in cosmetics. chitosan is generally regarded as biodegradable, nontoxic and non irritant material. it is biocompatible with both healthy and infected skin. Applications Chitosan is found useful in many fields like sustained drug delivery, components of mucoadhesive dosage forms, rapid release dosage forms, improved peptide delivery, colonic drug delivery systems and use for gene delivery. Chitosan is processed into several pharmaceutical forms including gels, beads, films, microspheres tablets and coatings for liposomes. PROPRANOLOL HYDROCHLORIDE (ÃŽÂ ²-adrenergic blocking agents) Adrenergic nonselective ÃŽÂ ²-receptor antagonist. (antihypertensive, antianginal and antiarrhythmic. ) STRUCTURE Chemical name (ÂÂ ±)-1-isopropylamino-3-(1-naphthyloxy) propan-2-ol hydrochloride Molecular formula C16H21NO2. HCl Molecular weight 295. 8 Description: A white powder, odourless and bitter in taste Solubility: Soluble Soluble 1 in 2 of water and ethanol Slightly soluble in chloroform I . PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTIONS a. Cardiovascular-Propranolol diminishes cardiac output, heart rate, and force of contraction. These effects are useful in the treatment of angina. b. Peripheral vasoconstriction-Blockade of ÃŽÂ ²-receptors prevents ÃŽÂ ²2-mediated vasodilation. The reduction in cardiac output leads to decreased blood pressure. c. Bronchoconstriction-Blocking ÃŽÂ ²2 receptors in the lungs of susceptible patients causes contraction of the bronchiolar smooth muscle. Î’-blockers are thus contradicted in patients with asthma. d. increased Na+ retention-reduced blood pressure causes a decrease in renal perfusion, resulting in an increase in Na+ and plasma volume. in some cases this compensatory response tends to elevate the BP. For these patients, ÃŽÂ ²-blockers are often combined with a diuretic to prevent Na+ retention. II. THERAPEUTIC EFFECTS a. Hypertension-propranolol lowers BP in hypertension by decreasing cardiac output. b. glaucoma-propranolo is effective in diminishing intraocular pressure in glaucoma. c. migraine-propranolol is also effective in reducing migraine episodes by blocking the catecholamine induced vasodilation in the brain vasculature. d. angina pectoris-propranolol decreases the oxygen requirement of heart muscle and therefore effective in reducing the chest pain in angina. e. myocardial infarction-propranolol and other ÃŽÂ ²-blockers have a protective effect on the myocardium. thus, patient who have had one myocardial infarction appear to be protected against a second heart attack by prophylactic use of ÃŽÂ ²-blockers. III. ADVERSE EFFECTS a. broncho constriction-when propranolol is administered to an asthmatic patient, an immediate contraction of the bronchiolar smooth muscle prevents air from entering the lungs. Therefore, propranolol must never be used in treating any individual with obstructive pulmonary disease. b. arrhythmias-treatment with the ÃŽÂ ²-blockers must never be stopped quickly because of the risk of precipitating cardiac arrhythmias. c. disturbances in metabolism- ÃŽÂ ² bloackade leads to decreased glycogenolysis and decreased glucagon secretion. d. drug interaction-drugs that interfere with the metabolism of propranolol, such as cimetidine, furosemide and chlorpromazine may potentiate its antihypertensive effects. conversely those that stimulate is metabolism, such as barbiturates, phenytoin and rifampicin can mitigate its effects. PHARMACOKINETICS Propranolol is well absorbed after oral administration but has low bioavailability due to high first pass metabolism in liver. it is highly bound to plasma proteins. Metabolism of propranolol is dependent on hepatic blood flow. DOSE Oral 10mg BD to 10mg QID (average 40-60mg/day) I. V 2-8mg injected over 10min with with constant monitoring. it is not injected S. C or I. M because of irritant property. MATERIALS NAME OF THE MATERIALS NAME OF THE COMPANY Propranolol hydrochloride Sodium alginate AR Hi-Media biosciences Ltd, Mumbai. Calcium chloride AR S. D Fine chemicals Ltd, Mumbai Barium chloride AR Qualigens Fine Chemicals Ltd, Mumbai Chitosan AR Fluca Biochemicals Ltd, Switzerland. (Viscosity 200-400 mPa. s) Acetic acid EQUIPMENTS USED Name of equipment Name of company UV/Vis Spectrophotometer JASCO V-530 IR Spectrophotometer Jasco-FT-IR 8201 PC Differential scanning calorimeter DSC-60 (Shimadzu, Tokyo, Japan) Optical Microscope and Stage Micrometer Erma. Japan Scanning Electron Microscope JSM 6400 x-ray diffractrometer Bruker AXS D8 Dissolution apparatus Electrolab TDT-08L, USP XXIV Type I Apparatus. Chennai Remi Hi-speed motor Universal motors. Mumbai Digital balance Denver Instruments 18002098899 simi INTRODUCTION MICROENCAPSULATION A process in which very thin coatings of polymeric materials are deposited around particles of solids or droplets of liquid. Different terms for solid particle systems are employed in drug delivery among them pellets, beads, microcapsules, microspheres, millispheres are few. The terminologies of most relevant multiparticulate systems are provided here. Pellets can be defined as Small, free flowing spherical particles manufactured by agglomeration of fine powders or granules of drug substances and excipients using appropriate processing equipment. The size of these particles rae usually between 0. 5 and 1. 5mm. sphericity and intra granular porosity are the two important quality attributes of pellets. The terms spherical granules and beads have been applied interchangeably to pellet system. Microspheres are solids approximately spherical particles ranging in size from 1 to 1000ÂÂ µm. They are made of polymeric, waxy, or other protective materials, that are biodegradable synthetic polymers and modified natural products such as gums, proteins, waxes etc. Microsphere: the enbtrapped substance is dispersed throughout the microsphere matrix. Microcapsule: the entrapped substance is completely surrounded by distinct capsule wall. The similiarities between microsphers and microcapsules are clear and illustrations of these particles are shown in Fig: Encapsulation methods Two major classes of encapsulation methods have evolved, viz chemical and physical. The first class of encapsulation involves polymerisation during the process of preparing the microcapsules. examples of this class are usually known by the name of interfacial polymerisation or in situ polymerisation. The second type involves controlled precipitation of a polymeric solution where in physical changes usually occur. The precipitation and or gelation listed in table cover many techniques. one example isthe precipitation of water soluble polymers such as gelatin with water miscible solvents such as isopropranol. other examples include the precipitation of ethyl cellulose from cyclohexane agin by cooling, and gelation of sodium alginate with aqueous calcium salt solutions. in all cases the objective is to precipitate a performed polymer around the core (sometimes a multi-particulate) to cause encapsulation. Process Coating material Suspended medium Interfacial polymerization Water soluble and insoluble monomers Aqueous/organic solvents Complex coacervation Water soluble polyelectrolyte Water Simple coacervation Hydrophobic polymers Organic solvents Thermal denaturation Proteins Organic solvents Salting out Water-soluble polymer Water Solvent evaporation Hydrophilic or hydrophobic polymer Organic or Water Hot melt Hydrophilic or hydrophobic polymer Aqueous/organic solvents Solvent removal Hydrophilic or hydrophobic polymer Organic solvents Spray drying Hydrophilic or hydrophobic polymer Air, nitrogen Phase separation Hydrophilic or hydrophobic polymer Aqueous/organic solvents POLYMER BASED DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEM There has been growing interest in polymer based bioadhesive drug delivery systems. one of the goals of such systems is to prolong the residence time of a drug carrier in the Gastro Intestinal tract(GIT). The bioadhesive bond can be of a covalent, electrostatic, hydrophobicor hydrogen bond nature. ionic polymers are reported to be more adhesive than neutral polymers, and an increased charge density will also give better adhesion suggesting that the electrostatic interactions are of great importance. except for the oesophagus, the entire GI tract including the stomach is covered with a continous layer of insoluble mucus gel. The mucus gel mainly consists of glycolproteins and due to their content of ester sulphate and sialic acid groups, the mucus layer has an overall strong net negative charge. The mucus layer has been considered as a possible site for bioadhesion and drug delivery by several groups. Natural polymers Recently, the use of natural polymers in the design of drug delivery formulation has received much attention due to their excellent biocompatibility, biodegradability, non toxicity and easy in availability. Polymers as carriers used in drug delivery system The different types of polymers for extended release preparations are given below. Biodegradable polymers The biodegradable polymers comprised of monomers linked to one another through functional groups and have unstable linkages in the backbone. They are biologically degraded or eroded by enzymes or generated by living cells. Natural Albumin, alginate, collagen, starch, chitosan, dextran, casein, gelatine, fibrinogen etc. Synthetic Polyalklyl-cyanoacrylate, poly ethyl cyano acrylate, poly amino acids, poly amides, poly acryl amides etc. Aliphatic polyesters Poly(maleicacid), poly (glycolic acid), poly(hydroxyl butyrate), poly (lactic acid), poly vinyl alcohol(PVA) etc. Non-biodegradable polymers Poly ethylene vinyl acetate(EVA), poly ether urethane(PEU), cellulose acetate, poly vinyl chloride(PVC), ethyl cellulose etc. In recent years a lrge number of biodegradable polymers have been investigated for their potential use as drug delivery systems. among them, sodium alginate and chitosan are very promising and have been widely exploited in pharmaceutical industry for sustained drug release. polysaccharides such as alginic acid, agar, chitin and chitosan have been used to agglomerate drugs for controlled drug delivery systems. Chitosan is a anaturally occurring polysaccharide comprosing of glucosamine and N-Acetyl glucosamine with unique poly cation characteristics. The polycationic nature of chitosan leads to a strong interaction with negatively charged alginate. when alginate is dropped into chitosan solution, the electrostatic interaction of carboxylic groups of alginate with the amino groups of chitosan results in the formation of a membarane on the surface of sodium alginate and improves the stability and drug content. This process has been widely used in the preparation of alginate chitosan membaranes with a solid calcium-alginate gel core. There are many advantages of the chitosan coating, such as the improvement of drug loading and bioadhesive property, as well as the prolonged drug release properties etc. Alginate(ionic, hydrophilic polymer) is a negatively charged polysachharide with high charge density and has been reported to be bioadhesive. among polyanionic polymers, alginate has been widely studied and applied for its possibility to modulate the release according to the properties of its carboxyl groups as well as its biodegradability and absence of its toxicity. alginate is a naturally derived anionic polysaccharide mainly from algae belonging to the family of phaeophyceae. Alginic acid is an algal polysaccharide and a species of poly carboxylic acid. alginate consists of two sugar moieties ÃŽÂ ²-D mannuronic acid and ÃŽÂ ±-L guluronic acid which exist either in blocks or random sequences and their relative proportions determines the biofunctional properties of alginc acid. alginate is known to form complexes with divalent cations, such as Ca2+, Ba2+, and Sr2+ in aqueous solution. depending upon the composition of two sugar residues and sequential distribution within the molecules, the complexes form either precipitates or hydrogels. guluronic acid blocks are known to form a rigid buckled structure, the so called egg box array, in which chelating calcium ions are nestled in the aqueous environment of the ordered gel structure due to the spatial arrangements of guluronic block oxygen atoms of carboxyl and hydroxyl groups. Alginate has been widely used as food additive, a tablet disintegrator or gelation agent, and the mechanism of its gelation have been extensively investigated. when an aqueous solution of sodium alginate(SA) is added dropwise to an aqueous solution of calcium chloride, spherical alginate beads with regular shape and size are produced, since an insoluble calcium alginate matrix is formed by the cation exchange between sodium and calcium ions. alginates are known to form reticulated structure when in contact with calcium chloride ions and this characteristic has been used to produce SR particulate systems for a variety of drugs. GEL FORMATION (GENERAL MECHANISM) A gel in classical colloidal terminology, is defined as a system which owes its characteristic properties to a cross linked network of polymeric chains which form at the gel point. a considerable amount of research has been carried out in recent years to elucidate the nature of the crosslinks and determine the structure of alginate gels. alginate beads can be prepared by extruding a solution of sodium alginate containing the desired drug or protein, as droplets, into a divalent crosslinking solution such as Ca2+, Ba2+, and Sr2+ . monovalent cations do not induce gelation while Ba2+, and Sr2+ ions produce stronger alginate gels than Ca2+. other divalent cations such as Pb2+, Cu2+, Cd2+, CO2+, Ni2+, Zn2+, Mn2+ will also cross link alginate gels but their use is limited due to their toxicity. The gelation and cross linking of the polymers are mainly achieved by the exchange of divalent cations and stacking of these guluronic acids with the divalent cations, and the stacking of these gul uronic groups to form the characteristic egg-box structure shown in fig LARGE BEAD PREPARATION In general, beads greater than 1. 0mm in diameter which can be produced by using a syringe, with a needle or a pipette. sodium alginate solution that contains the solubilised drug or protein is transferred dropwise into a gently agitated divalent cross linking solution. The diameter of the beads formed is dependant on the size of the needle used and the viscosity of the alginate solution . a larger diameter needle and higher viscosity solutions will produce larger diameter beads. The viscosity of SA can also influence the shape of the microbeads produced. The beads become more spherical as the concentration of SA increased. however, in general SA solutions of greater than 5% are difficult to prepare. Since, gelation occurs in an aqueous environment, alginate is a promising material as a food additive, drug formulation and useful even for encapsulation of living cells to protect them from immune responses. utilizing this stable complex formation with divalent cations, alginate gels have been utilized for investigation of cells are considered to be the ultimate system for the pulsatile release of biologically active compounds. Formulation of delivery devices for protein and peptide drugs under aqueous conditions are desirable to avoid the undesirable decrease of bioactivities which may occur when using organic solvents or heat during formulations. since relatively stable alginate gels can be formed in aqueous environments through chelation or complexation, which are promising delivery of matrices for bioactive compounds. It has been suggested that the crosslinks were caused either by ionic bridging of 2 carboxyl groups on adjacent polymer chains via calcium ions or by chelation of single calcium ions by hydroxyl and carboxyl groups on each of a pair of polymer chains. although these bonds may play a role in the gelation mechanism which are not sufficiently energetically favourable to account for the gelation of alginate. it has been shown on thebasis of fibre diffraction data and model-building calculations that the shape of both poly-mannuronic acid segments and the polygulutended, and that these extended ribbons can stack together in sheets. on the basis of these data and the properties of gels it has been suggested that the cooperative association of either polymannuronic acid segments or polyguluronic acid segments are involved in the formation of the crosslinked network of polymer chain. This technique has shown attractive applications in different fields, including cell immobilisation, owing to its mild operating conditions. as the encapsulation method is mild, and done at room temperature in aqueous medium, several sensitive drugs, proteins, living cells, enzymes, spermatozoa etc have been successfully encapsulated through alginate beads. The primary structure of alginate depends on the producing species and for the marine species, seasonal and geographical changes might result in variations in alginates extracted from the same species. The polymer is nown to form a physical gel by hydrogen bonding at low pH(acid gel)and by ionic interactions with polyvalent cations such as calcium, the cation acting as a cross linker between the polymer chains. The viscosity and primary structure of polymer are important features determining it swelling and gelling properties. At neutral pH, sodium alginate is soluble and hydrates to form viscous solutions, but below pH3, alginic acid, water swellable but insoluble, which is rapidly formed. since the hydration characteristics of the polymer and the subsequent physical properties of the hydrated gel layer may critically influence drug release. When CA beads are treated with 0. 1M HCl, alginate gels hydrolysed to lower molecular weight fractions of alginic acid. due to conversion of COO- groups into unionised carboxylic groups, the electrostatic attraction between Ca2+ ions and COO- ions in the egg-box junction almost disappears. moreover, there may occur in ion-exchange between H+ ion(presence in the external HCl solution) and free Ca2+ ions inside the beads. thus a reduced Ca2+ ions concentration within the beads results in a weaker Ca2+ cross linked beads when put in phosphate buffer at pH 6. 8. Therefore, the acid-treated beads are loosely crosslinked structure more soluble alginate as constituent. when such beads are put in the phosphate buffer pH6. 8, the beads swell at a faster rate but do not attain a higher water uptake value due to loosely bound structure of the beads which is unable to retain large amount of water within the beads. moreover, there is possibility of ion-exchange between H+ ions produced due to ion isation of carboxylic groups in the buffer at pH. A group of scientists developed a method of enclosing viable cells, tissues, and other labile biological substances within a semipermeable membrane. preliminary in-vitro studies of several types of microencapsulated cells and tissues(redblood cells, sperm cells, hepatica cells, hepatocytes, pancreatic endocrine tissues, and islets) were described by them. essentially, the process involves suspending the living cells or tissues in sodium alginate solution. The cell or tissue suspension is extruded through a device producing micro-droplets which fall into a calcium chloride solution and form gelled microbeads with the cells or tissues entrapped. These cell containing gel microbeads are next treated with polysine which displaces the surface layer of calcium ions and forms a permanent polysalt shell or membrane. finally, the interior calcium alginate is liquefied, either to stay in or to cum out(depending on molecular weight and size of the starting alginate) of the capsule with a calciu m sequestrant such as buffered citrate solution. Gohel et al ., prepared diclofenac sodium microspeheres by using sodium alginate as a polymer and CaCl2 as a cross linking agent. in this investigation stirring speed, concentration of crosslinking agent and heavy liquid paraffin were studied, on the time required for 80% of drug dissolution. a statistical model with significant interaction terms was derived to predict t80 and drug was released by diffusion of anomalous type. The results of multiple regression analysis and F value statistics revealed that, obtaining of controlled drug release and microspheres were to be prepared using relatively lower stirring speed. Literature reports indicate wide spread use of sodium alginate for achieving sustained release of drugs, targeting gastric mucosa and increasing the bioavailability of drugs because of sodium alginates ability to form a stable and bioadhesive gel with calcium ions. Alginate also has several unique properties that have enabled it to be used as a matrix for the entrapment or delivery of a variety of proteins, macromolecules and cells. USES Of Alginate Beads A relatively inert aqueous environment within the matrix. A mild room temperature encapsulation process free of organic solvent A high gel porosity which allows for high diffusion rate of macromolecules The ability to control this porosity with simple coating procedures. Dissolution and biodegradation of the system under normal physiological conditions. Standard graph for propranolol hydrochloride A stock solution of propranolol hydrochloride was prepared by dissolving 100mg of the drug in 100ml of the phosphate buffer of pH6. 8 to give 1mg/ml solution. ten millilitres of stock solution was diluted to 100ml using phosphate buffer f pH6. 8 to produce 100ÂÂ µg/ml working stock solution. from this working solution, dilutions were made with phosphate buffer of pH6. 8 to produce 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 ÂÂ µg/ml. The ÃŽÂ » max of the drug was determined by scanning the dilutions between 400 and 200nm using a Shimadzu 1400 UV visible spectrophotometer. At this wavelength, the absorbances of all the other solutions were measured against a blank. Standard curve between concentration and absorbance was plotted. COMPATIBILITY STUDIES One of the requirements for the selection of suitable polymers or carriers for pharmaceutical formulation is its compatibility. Therefore in the present work a compatibility study was done by using Infra Red spectroscopy (IR) and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) to find out if there is any possible chemical interaction between propranolol hydrochloride and the polymers. DIFFERENTIAL SCANNING CALORIMETRY (DSC) Differential Scanning calorimetric analysis was used to characterize the thermal behaviour of the drug substances. It was performed by using DSC-60(Shimadzu, Tokyo, Japan) calorimeter to study the thermal behaviour of selected formulations. The instrument comprised of calorimeter (DSC60), flow controller (FCL60), thermal analyzer (TA60) and operating software(TA 60). The samples were heated in hermetically sealed aluminium pans under nitrogen flow (30ml/min)at a scanning rate of 5Â °C/min from 24 + 1Â °C to 300Â °C. An empty aluminium pan, sealed in the same way as the sample was used as a reference. SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY Scanning electron microscopy is used to obtain the surface topographical characterization of beads. SEM photographs of prepared formulations were taken with (Instrument JSM-6390)at different magnification ranging from 30 to 5000x at room temperature. The samples were mounted on double sided adhesive tape that has previously been secured on copper stubs. The acceleratio